Cellular Phone Usage while Driving Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Cellular Phone Usage while Driving - Essay Example The real issue is whether such use in significantly more distracting than other tasks that the public as a whole currently regard as 'acceptable.'" The following evidence will explore previous research on accidents that can be attributed to cellular phone usage while operating a motor vehicle, followed by claims supporting or disparaging that cellular phone usage is more distracting-and therefore more susceptible to legislation-than common tasks, such as putting on makeup, talking to passengers, and changing the radio station. Driving is a highly complex skill that requires the continual integration of interdependent perceptual, motor, and cognitive processes (Salvucci & Macuga, 2001). In a study examining three thousand drivers, half of which used cell phones while driving and half of which did not, researchers used a logistic regression model to examine age, relative cell phone usage, accident exposure and alcohol-related incidences to compare the contributing factors of police-reported collisions involving the users and "nonusers" in the sample (Wilson et. al 2003). The findings showed that drivers observed using cell phones had a higher risk of an at-fault crash than did the "nonusers," with a higher proportion of rear-end collisions, although there was no apparent effect on "inattention" violations (Wilson et al 2003). A s A study published by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) revealed that approximately 25-30 percent of the injuries caused by car crashes were due to driver distraction (Utter, 2001 cited by Tseng, Nguyen, Liebowitz, & Agresti, 2005). Differences between drivers who used cell phones and nonusers in unsafe driving behaviors and attitudes were also examined, and target groups for intervention efforts against talking on a cell phone while driving are suggested. With in-vehicle use of cell phones rapidly increasing, the safety of young drivers, who represent 14% of licensed drivers but 26% of drivers involved in fatal crashes, may be disproportionately threatened (Seo, and Torabi 2004). The authors used a questionnaire to examine the association between in-vehicle cell-phone use and accidents or near-accidents among 1,291 conveniently recruited college students in 4 states (Seo, and Torabi 2004). Of the 1,185 respondents who were drivers, 87% had a cell phone, and 86% of the cell-phone owners reported talking while driving at least occasionally, and 762 reported accidents or near-accidents, 21% involved at least 1 of the drivers talking while driving states (Seo, and Torabi 2004). Chi-square tests and logistic regression analyses showed that the frequency, not the duration, of drivers talking while driving was related to experiencing accidents or near-accidents (Seo, and Torabi 2004). Research reiterates that the use of cellular phones while driving has been established as the major cause of driver inattention. The Harvard Center for Risk Analysis found that use of cell phones while driving caused 330,000 moderate to severe injuries and approximately 2,600 deaths each year (Sundeen, 2003 cited by

Law Enforcement Today Essay Example for Free

Law Enforcement Today Essay Law enforcement is something that is needed in our country. As time has passed, crime rates have gone up. New types of crimes are created by just about anything. Let’s take a look at an example of a new crime starting up. People who are driving and texting is now becoming a crime. This may seem like something minor, but it can lead to something horrible, like the cause to a fatal accident. The driver who was busy texting his buddy that he was on the way to the bar could of caused him to get to close to another car and crash into it, causing vehicle damages and even death. With technology advancing, crime has gone up with it as well. Now people commit crime online by stealing credit card numbers and even a person’s identity. Our law enforcement agencies now have to stay on top of things in today’s world, because if they don’t, the bad guys will win. Our law enforcement agencies are made up of local, state, and federal. They interact with the U. S. Department of Homeland Security to ensure success with enforcing the law and keeping communities safe. They might not have the best relationship but there can be ways to improve that. Many people do not really understand the importance of law enforcement until they desperately need them to help in their time of need. Some of the things that we do not understand are that the law enforcement officers face many challenges in today’s society. Our officers have to go through much training to be where they are at today. They have witnessed horrible crimes that could possibly leave them traumatized for life. Aside from that, they face issues of racial profiling, extreme dangers during work hours, and learning how to deal with stress and facing a multicultural society. These officers have to suppress their emotions from what they face every day. They might even have to keep their business private from family members or they could face some type of judgment. People already act different toward any police officer. In some people’s eyes, the police are the bad guys. It is understandable because there have been many corrupt police officers that make it hard for the good guys. Some people feel that if the officer is a certain race, the officer will be for their own race and against theirs. For instance, a black police officer may be judged on his skin color and the citizens might feel that officer is protecting the black criminals. We have many law enforcement agencies with good people who are doing their best to serve and protect the people. The local law enforcement consists of different agencies, like the city police department, county sheriff’s office, transit authority police, school district police, and university police. Those are just a few. The state enforcement agencies consist of the attorney general, highway patrols, and department of criminal justice and there are more. The federal law enforcement agencies consist of the U. S. Department of Homeland Security, U. S. Immigration and Customers Enforcement, the FBI, and more. All of these agencies work together to keep our country balanced and in order. The Department of Homeland Security has the local, state, and federal agencies set to handle situations that involve natural disasters, acts of terrorism, and other types of disasters created by people. All agencies have a person who supports or recommends causes or policies that have to be enforced. These agencies are also provided with a point of contact for DHS in case of any situation arising that might involve them. With the law enforcement agencies working together, crime can be controlled and even prevented. I think if the police departments could be trained more on what the DHS does, maybe the relationship between them could become better. A way to build a better relationship would be to empower state and local agencies to have more power over things so in case of some type of terrorism or natural disaster, they will know what to do. Communication is a big factor in building the relationship between the agencies and DHS. If the right information is passed along the departments, this could allow for everyone to stay up-to-date with current crime and could possibly be prevented in the future, or help to better handle the situation once it happens. The relationship between law enforcement agencies and the people of our country needs to be improved as well. Many people do not realize what these officers go through. If a relationship bond could be formed with the people and the agencies, then that could also help for crimes to be stopped and prevented. Ensuring the safety of our country is what we need to focus on. There are too many crimes going on where it is basically our people against each other and that needs to stop. References http://www. golawenforcement. com/LawEnforcementAgencies. htm http://www. spiritofthelaw. org/sol1art6. html http://www. golawenforcement. com/StateAgencies/TexasLawEnforcement. htm http://www. dhs. gov/xlibrary/assets/foia/plcy_directive_252-11_office_for_state_and_local_law_enforcement. pdf http://www. heritage. org/research/reports/2011/08/homeland-security-4-0-overcoming-centralization-complacency-and-politics Schmalleger, F. 2011 Criminal Justice Today: An Introductory Te4xt for the 21st Century

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus In order to ensure that the outcome of the pregnancy is the best for mother and baby, a routine is undertaken which is embraced by the term Ante Natal care. Ante natal care is simply caring for the mothers before labour and delivery and also preparing the mothers fully for delivery because of safe motherhood. This can only be achieved by if mother is seen early preferably before the 10th week and at regular intervals thereafter. In this essay, I will be discussing one of the factors which are (GDM) gestational diabetes mellitus which affects the normal physiological pregnancy state. Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is defined as carbohydrate in tolerance resulting in hyperglycaemia of variable severity with its onset and first recognition during pregnancy. Insulin is an essential hormone required for glucose transfer into the muscle and adipose tissue cells. For women with diabetes mellitus, pregnancy can present some particular changes for both mother and the child. If the woman who is pregnant has diabetes, it can cause early and very large babies (Macrosomia). Management of pregnant mothers with diabetes needs very firm and accurate control even in advance of having pregnancy. There are question whether the condition is natural during pregnancy or not. Gestational diabetes is caused when the insulin receptors do not function properly, due to pregnancy related factors such as the presence of human placental lactogen that interfere with susceptive insulin receptors. Gestational diabetes affects 3-10% of pregnancies, depending on the population studied, so may be a natural occurrence (Littleton, 2005,). During a normal pregnancy, many physiological changes occur such as increased hormonal secretions that influence blood glucose levels, such as glucose – drain to the fetus, slowed emptying of the stomach, increased excretion of glucose by the kidneys and resistance of cells to insulin. Moving further, I as the ante-natal clinic nurse will first try to collect as much information as I can from the patient. During her 12th week of gestation, Mrs. B came for her ante natal case booking. She was already 3 months and this was her initial visit to the ante natal clinic. I booked Mrs. B by obtaining subjective data from her. I as the nurse, firstly I offered her seat so that she can sit in level with me. After that I took her personal history after greeting the client. She was feeling ease and welcomed. I communicated with her in English because she was able to understand and I also kept in mind that level of education might be low so I used simple interpretations of facts. Her first impression was very good because she was a Primip-gravida and she looked happy and relaxed. Her physical characteristics were good, because (posture) she was sitting comfortably and even she was working normally without any problem (gait). She looked health during her first visit to the clini c. After this observation during interview, I had taken her full personal history. Her full name is Mrs. B. She was born on 15th of April, 1989 at Labasa Hospital. Her age now is 24 years. Just because she is Fijian, I did not ask for her father’s name, nevertheless, she is married to a Fijian, 25 year old businessman. She is a primary school teacher. Her husband’s name is Mr. C and they reside in Namara, Labasa and both of them are Methodist. Both have attended tertiary institutions and are well educated. She gave her husband’s name and phone number for emergency purpose. Secondly, I obtained Mrs. B family history. Not much information was given by Mrs. B because her parent and grandparents were of Fijian origin and they lived in village. Her mother had diabetes only. Thirdly, I took the medical history of Mrs. B, according to her she is not having any medical problems and she was never admitted before for any illness. Mrs. B is only allergic to penicillin anti biotic. In her social history, it is interesting to know that this would be their first child in the family, so no case of negligence or overcrowding in the home. They both, husband and wife earn enough for their upcoming family. She is not a teenager and has a good age for first child bearing. She is physically, psychologically and financially strong to mother a child. They live in a concrete and iron roofing house and they reside in an industrial area. They both neither smoke nor consume alcohol or drugs. She did not have a surgical history. She did not have any abdominal, pelvic, cardiac surgeries or either injuries. I did not ask anything about her previous obstetric history because this was her first pregnancy. As a nurse, I asked her about any abortionsmiscarriage but Mrs. B said no because they used family planning devices before so she did not had any abortions and miscarriage. There was no gynaecological history for Mrs. B. Her menstrual history, she has menses which last f or 3 days- 4 days. She was fourteen years when she had had her first menses (menarche). Just because Mrs. B was 12 weeks pregnant, I did not ask her about on set of movement but calculated her expected date of delivery (EDD). Her last menses occurred on 17th of February until 20th of February. It is a four days regular flow according to Mrs. B. So her expected date of delivery would be seventeen plus seven and add 9 months from indicated date, so that will be on 24th day of November. After this assessment, I did the physical examination of Mrs. B. Firstly, I took Mrs. B height and it was 168cm, her weight was 62.5kg and to notice difference in her weight, it had to be taken on every visit. Mrs. B urine test was done for protein and glucose, mid stream specimen was taken and this was done in all the visits to get the results from laboratory. Her blood pressure was taken. Blood test was also done for emergencies and surgical procedures. As a nurse, we also checked for edema. This may not be seen during initial visit but as pregnancy progress it can be noticed. All this assessments and examinations were done by two nurses since I had to have a female nurse since I was interviewing a female client and received a lot of information about Mrs. B and her health. This also built a foundation of a trusting relationship. In addition to this, a goal of antenatal care is equally important because this acts as guidance in caring for the antenatal case holistically. Firstly, the aim that is to monitor the progress of pregnancy in order to support the maternal health and normal fetal development and to ensure that the mother reaches the end of pregnancy in a healthy state and delivers a healthy baby. Nurses and midwives are the best people to detect the problem early, diagnose it and treat the problem before progression of labour and delivery. More of our aims include identification of women at risk. As a nurse you must educate clients at high risk pregnancy on their medications, follow-up, nutrition and exercise, so that they can get a positive result. To assess levels of health by taking a detailed history and to after appropriate screening test. Ask to identify risk factors by talking accurate details of past and present obstetric, medical, family and personal history. Another aim is to provide a good opportunity for the women and her family to express and discuss any concerns they might have about the current pregnancy and previous pregnancy loss, labour, birth or pueperium.. Lastly, the most vital is the delivery of the healthy term infant without signs of distress or any abnormality. Furthermore, the nurse’s role independently in managing for the gestational diabetes mellitus women are broad and as follows. A nurse must carry out a proper procedure when dealing with a GDM mother so that she and the infant’s risk of complications are reduced. Firstly, a nurse must obtain baseline data from the patient. Secondly, I carried my nursing assessment on Mrs. B, I took her vital signs. This was very much important because an increase in blood pressure and weight may be a sign of PIH, which is a frequent complication associated with diabetes. After that I asked Mrs. B about her gestational age because it assists in managing pregnancy and planning timing and method of delivery. Apart from this ultrasound examination was also carried out on Mrs. B for abnormalities, confirm age of gestation, and monitor the size and weight of fetus. Uterine size, fetal activity, fetal heart rate evaluate and reflect fetus status and well. Other intervention which I carried out independently was to monitor blood sugar level frequently, as this was checked more often than usual according to the doctor. Also I made sure that each time when checking the blood sugar level a proper record of the result and presented to the health care team for evaluation and modification of the treatment. Many may need extra insulin during pregnancy to reach their blood sugar targets since insulin is not harmful to the baby. During her one of the clinic, Mrs. B was examined routinely and was found that there was glucose in the urine and the blood system level was above targets. I gave insulin therapy to control the sugar further. Also I advised on the meals, to cut down sweets, eat three small meals and one to three snacks a day, maintain proper meal times and include balanced fibre intake in the form of fruits, vegetables and whole grains. Mrs. B attended her clinic when she was 24 weeks, after examining Mrs. B, her blood glucose level was not in control as a result. So we had to admit Mrs B to the ante natal ward for insulin therapy. The aim here was to stabilize the blood glucose level. Mrs. B was admitted. I explained her about the ward, orientated about the ward protocols, meal hours and the special diet which she will have. The first 2 to 3 days, 4 point was done to find out if patient should be adequately controlled on diet, if not then insulin was recommended. Mrs. B was supposed to have 4 points procedure, so I kept her on nil by mouth post midnight. Blood specimen one was collected at 7am, then patient to have breakfast. Specimen 2 was taken at 9.30am. Specimen 3 was taken at 1.30pm and 4th one was taken at 6.30pm. Moreover, the health care team as a whole had collaborative role towards care of the pregnant mother who was reaching 26 week gestation. Effective ante natal care for women with diabetes mellitus should be provided by a multidisciplinary team in a joint diabetes and antenatal clinic (Fraser, 2009). The woman is seen often as required in order to maintain good glycaemia control. Treatment depends on the blood glucose levels. The midwife should involve both the diabetic nurse or (midwife) specialist and dietician in dietary interventions. Mrs. B was advised by the dietician about nutrition; ideally diabetic women who anticipate pregnancy will follow a prescribed well balanced dietary regimen before conception and will be in a state of good metabolic control. The dietician advised Mrs. B on the caloric requirement for the normal weight client is 35 calories per kilogram. Doctors advised Mrs. B on insulin treatment. Physiotherapist advised Mrs. B on importance of moderate exercise during pregnancy example walking, swimming because it helps lower blood glucose level this decrease need for insulin. Also Mrs. B was advised by the doctor on other medical management such as oral metformin medications. Nurses should also monitor blood glucose on a regular basis throughout pregnancy. So counselling before pregnancy (for example about preventive folic acid) and multi disciplinary management are important for good pregnancy outcome. Moreover, highlighting the reasons for the interventions carried out gives an idea that why this particular nursing intervention on Mrs. B who was diagnosed as gestational diabetes. Firstly as a nurse, I identified Mrs. B at GDM risk. It was better that her problem was identified earlier or else if she would not have been attending her clinics there would have been increased risk for hyperglycaemia, infection, pregnancy induced hypertension and also hydramnios. Since Mrs. B was diabetic, the infant would have been at high risk of macrosomia and also congenital abnormalities. All this would have lead to difficulties in vaginal deliveries. Secondly, baseline vital signs, height, weight should be monitored in every subsequent visits. Blood pressure was taken when I asked Mrs. B to lie in a left lateral position so that an accurate reading was achieved. Mrs. B was also monitored by (sonography) ultrasound examining subsequently during her visits for fetal abnormalities, confirmation of g estational age and also to monitor size and weight of fetus. Activity (kicking) fetal movement was also maintained by nurses to find that fetus remains active. Collaboratively, urinalysis, culture and sensitivity were done to detect asyptomatic bacteriuria, a precursor to event pyelonephritis, to which the diabetes is especially prone. Midwives also performed a fundal examination, initially and subsequently atleast once a trimester for Mrs. B to detect any vascular changes accompanying diabetes. Mrs. B was also advised by the dietician on nutrition and hydration to maintain blood glucose targets to normal. Client knowledge about self monitoring by the midwives allows the development of an appropriate teaching plan to ensure compliance and minimize risk of complications. Mrs. B was also educated on support system and services because of the high risk of the pregnancy so that necessary support system and assistance can be obtained. Psychosocial and economic factors with special consid eration to the parental stress evoked by the high risk pregnancy was explained to her so that she does not take too much stress which can lead to high risk pregnancy, research has shown that gestational diabetes experience more stressful responses than pre gestational diabetics for all aspects of the medical regimen (Perry, (2006). 4 points procedure was done on her following the glucose tolerance test for the proceeding of insulin therapy. After insulin therapy Mrs. B was discharged and called for her clinic subsequently to detect whether blood glucose was maintained or not. During her visits, the midwives performed abdominal examination, vaginal examination and fundal palpation to establish and affirm that fetal growth is consistent with gestational age during progression of pregnancy. This was done to detect fetal growth, fetal lie, fetal presentation etc. When Mrs. B was 35 weeks, during her clinic it was found that the blood glucose level was maintained, there was no glucose in urine and no other signs as before due to gestational diabetes two which was medically controlled. To sum up, later on during her 37 weeks of gestation Mrs. B was having labour pain and she was rushed to hospital with all her belongings needed together with the babies’ clothes and other things. She was admitted direct to the labour ward in the preparation room. fetal heart rate monitoring and vaginal examination was done. She was 3-4cm dilated and was taken to first stage room for further assessment on partogram and vaginal examination. The following morning she gave birth to a healthy term infant without signs of distress and or hypoglycaemia. Therefore, our strength was that we collaboratively, the health care team identified the patient at risk on an early stage that is why there was no complication during or after delivery. And our weakness lies if all the health care team do not identify high risk of pregnancy at an early stage therefore, early booking is equally very important. (Approx words:2500) References Brown, D., Edward, H. (2005). Medical-Surgical Nursing: Assessment Management of Clinical Problem. Australia: Elsevier. Crisp, J., Taylor, C. (2013). Potter Perry’s Fundamentals of nursing (4th ed.). Australia: Elsevier. Fraser, D, M., Cooper, M, A. (2009). Myles Textbook for Midwives (15th ed.). Australia: Elsevier. Perry, L. (2006). Maternity Nursing (7th ed.). Australia: Elsevier. Mc Kinney, E., James, S., Murray, S., Ashwill, J. (2005). Maternity Child Nursing (2nd ed.). Australia: Elsevier. Littleton, L, Y., Engebretson, A. (2005). Maternity Nursing Care. USA: Elsevier. 1

The Rwandan Genocide: Overview

The Rwandan Genocide: Overview During the Rwandan genocide in 1994 about one million Tutsi and Hutu opposition members were slaughtered by the extremist Hutu government the Hutu, the majority ethnic group in Rwanda. Their aim was to exterminate the Tutsi, the minority ethnic group which comprised of only about 25% of the population. In order to discuss the source of the Rwandan genocide it is important to analyse the nature of the concept so that it can be applied with the aim of establishing why the genocide took place when it did and whether an ancient ethnic hatred was the origin of the Rwandan genocide. Genocide is an essentially contested concept that is hard to define. Horowitz states that is empirically ubiquitous and politically troublesome, because there are both limited and extensive classifications of the term.  [1]  The narrow interpretation of genocide states that genocide is almost always a premeditated act calculated to achieve the end of its perpetrators through mass murder.  [2]  Horowitz detects that a core principle is that genocide must be conducted with the approval of, if not direct intervention by the state apparatus as part of a political policy.  [3]  Chalk and Jonassohn go on to say that genocide is one-sided mass killing. They point out that one-sided mass killing is also essential in order to exclude from the analys[is] the casualties of war.  [4]  The broader definition of genocide according to Chalk and Jonassohn can also include the destruction of a culture without an attempt to physically destroy its bearers, which suggests that genocide i s a more common occurrence.  [5]  Consistent with this broad definition, the United Nations Convention on Genocide defined genocide as acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, such as: killing member of the group. Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on a group conditions of life calculated to being about physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measure intended to prevent births within a group; forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.  [6]  The expansiveness of the UNs definition is itself a function of the ambiguity associated with the operationalisation of this term in the international policy field. A key feature of the definitions of genocide is the decisive role the state plays in marginalizing and exterminating an ethnic, racial or religious group. For the purpose of this essay, the narrow definition i.e. one sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group, will be used.  [7]  This essay argues that the Rwandan genocide was caused by a combination of political, social, economic and international factors and not solely the result of ancient ethnic hatred. It supports the views of Totten, Parsons and Charny who argue that contrary to the image conveyed by the media, there is nothing in the historical record to suggest a kind of tribal meltdown rooted in deep seated antagonisms, or longstanding atavistic hatreds.  [8]  While ethnic tensions contributed to the injustices administered to the minority groups in this devastating event, to reduce the cause of the genocide to ancient ethnic rivalry is simplistic given the historical and contem porary evidence on the subject. Historical events such as colonialism and the civil war created long lasting ethnic tensions. The conflict may not have followed had political and socio-economic circumstances not been exacerbated through the use of propaganda and the ethnic rivalry concocted during colonialism. Ethnic tensions were clearly rooted in colonialism. According to Horowitz One of the fundamental characteristics of nineteenth century European imperialism was its systematic destruction of communities outside the mother country.  [9]  Rwanda had been a German and Belgium colony. The Germans saw the Tutsi as the more superior race, different from the majority of common and savage negroes, because their physical features when compared to the Hutus appeared to bear more resemblance to European features, therefore they were born rulers.  [10]  As a result they were educated and given jobs in the military and public administration while the Hutus were relegated to menial tasks. This created resentment towards the Tutsis among the Hutu which was further exacerbated when Rwanda became a Belgian colony. Under Belgian imperial rule the Tutsis and Hutus were all given identity cards indicating which ethnic group they belonged to. The strict classification system further heightened the distinction between the two groups and the construction of these separate identities in conjunction with propaganda methods became a main part in inciting ethnic hatred. Mamdani observes that these identities were the fault lines along which political violence exploded. The violence started with colonial pacification which took on genocidal proportions.  [11]  This also supports the claim that the Rwandan genocide was partly rooted in colonialism. The combination of resentment and the segregation between Tutsi and Hutu contributed significantly to the ethnic tension that existed during the Hutu governments rule. However the development of ethnic tension during the colonial years did not necessarily have to lead to genocide. In addition to the ethic divisions created during colonialism, propaganda in the post-independence period further aggravated ethnic tensions. The Tutsi were portrayed as foreigners in Rwanda by the Hutu government through a successful propaganda campaign. Melvern explains that according to the Hutu the Tutsi were proud, arrogant, tricky and untrustworthy, describing them as aliens, and cockroaches.  [12]  The Hutu regime created a stereotype using specific language on national radio broadcasts (e.g. Radio Tà ©là ©vision Libre des Mille Collines) and in printed media which the Hutu extremists used to incite ethnic hatred. Totten, Parsons and Charny note that through the use of language the enemy was demonised, [and] made the incarnation of evil, which dehumanised the Tutsi and contributed to the willingness of numerous Hutus to participate in genocide.  [13]  In direct contrast with the Tutsi the Hutu people were depicted as modest, honest, loyal, independent and impulsive.à ‚  [14]  In doing this the Hutu government created collective memories from colonialism that historically the Hutu had always been enslaved and mistreated by the Tutsi and their foreign allies. This validated the Hutu extremist policies and violence but also created resentment which was intended to fuel the already festering hatred. Again, we see that as in the colonial era, the political system and the ideology on which it is based contributed significantly to conflict in the society. Though ethnic tensions existed, these influences contributed to climax of ethnic hatred in 1994. The portrayal of Tutsi people as outsiders was restricted to the 1990s and was based on political manipulation showing that the tension was not based on ancient Rwandan history but instead it had been stage-managed. Exaggerating the differences between the Hutu and the Tutsi through political propaganda can be viewed as part of the reason why the genocide took place in 1994 and not before. It is therefore apparent that the Rwandan genocide was not mainly caused by ancient ethnic hatred but instead by the aim to amplify ethnic tension during the 1990s. It is worth noting that the Tutsi and Hutu had coexisted peacefully for years despite having had a historical background rife with ethnic tension. Mills and Brunner maintain that for centuries they have spoken the same language, lived on the same hillsides, and intermarried to such an extent that the physical characteristics stereotypically attributed to each tall, thin, lighter skinned for the Tutsi; short, stocky and darker skinned for the Hutu are often blurred.  [15]  This shows that the Rwanda genocide was not caused but ethnic hatred as there would need to be evidence of serious ethnic disputes prior to 1994. Also because the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups were intertwined one has to question whether ethnicity was the only grounds for extermination. The Hutu government emphasised ethnicity. However opposition to the Hutu extremist government and Tutsi sympathisers were also massacred along with the Tutsi. The division is debatably not in fact ethnic although that is how it w as portrayed. Rather it is more likely to have been based on class and occupational lines as this was the case before colonisation. This reveals that there must have been another explanation for the genocide other than ethnic hatred. The true motivation behind the Rwanda genocide was in fact fear. One of the reasons why genocide took place when it did is because the Hutu government feared a Tutsi invasion from neighbouring Burundi and Uganda. Shelton agrees with this argument pointing out that the Hutu government called for the extermination of the Tutsi fearing the loss of its power in the face of a democracy movement and a civil war.  [16]  The RPF (Rwanda Patriotic Front) consisted of Tutsi refugees in exile that had formed in Uganda following the expulsion of thousands of Tutsi in 1959 in opposition to the Hutu extremist government. Since the October 1990 invasion by the RPF into Rwanda the Hutu extremists feared another attack and as a result their ethnic policies became more extreme. The Hutu extremists saw the Tutsi in Rwanda as an internal threat which they associated with an external enemy, the RPF. The Hutu government nationalised the fear of this internal threat by instilling it in the Hutu populat ion using propaganda. Uvins view supports this position stating that they successfully sought to spread ethnic fear throughout society, to organise and legitimise the forces of violence and genocide and to desensitise people to violence.  [17]  In the context of civil war although ethnic tensions are central to the conflict it is clear that the origins of the Rwandan genocides does not lie in ancient ethnic hatred but extensively in fear. This fear was intended to mobilise the masses and it can therefore be said that the spread of fear among the population was an important cause of the Rwandan genocide because it put pressure severe pressure on ethnic divides. Ethnicity was allegedly what the Hutu government claimed to be the basis of their aim to create a truly Rwandan state where Rwanda belonged to the Hutu.  [18]  In order to achieve this state a social revolution, was necessary which involved purging the state of outsiders, the Tutsi  [19]  . The Tutsi were seen as being ancestrally from North Africa and on this basis they were to be excluded from the creation of a true Rwandan state. It was this exclusion as well as the fear of Tutsi rule that motivated the extremist Hutu government and their radical propaganda policy. Melvern observes that when the first political parties were formed, they were created along strict ethnic lines, in line with ideological principles.  [20]  This development of ideology adds to this set of ideas that can be used for both internal and external legitimisation, which with the support of the church as well as the international community further justified the Hutu governments actions despite the radical nature of their policies  [21]  . It is clear that when examining the Hutu government their policies on ethnic hatred were not entirely based on an ancient feud as ethnic distinctions did not exist in early Rwandan history, but instead were largely embedded in extreme ideology that ironically this did not represent the majority Hutu opinion. Instead the combination of fear and the aim to create the ideal Hutu state escalated ethnic hatred. As well as the civil war other significant events widened the divide between the Tutsi and the Hutu. Rwanda was a recently independent fragile state and domestic affairs were put under pressure by the 1990 rural crisis which damaged the agriculturally based Rwandan economy. Uvin highlights that this decline is a result of a combination of factors, conjunctural and structural: a set of drought s in the middle of the late 1980s; the effects of erosion, land degradation and poverty.  [22]  Additionally the dramatic fall in the price of coffee, a major export intensified the pressure on the Hutu government because it greatly reduced the earnings of the Rwandan state.  [23]  As a result of this the Rwandan government had to ask the IMF for a state loan which increased the pressure the Rwandan government experienced in a rapidly declining economy. The Hutu extremist government were able to use this as part of the propaganda ploy to blame the Tutsi and label them economic exploiters , thus further contributing to ethnic resentment and hatred. These internal pressures show how the creation of ethnic hatred was a multifaceted strategy and not solely the result of ancient tensions. The Rwandan genocide was also caused by the build up of ethnic hatred in the context of civil war. The assassination of Juvenal Habyarimana was a turning point in that it served as the spark that set the plans for genocide in motion.  [24]  The Hutu government used this event to propel the masses into action. They accused the Tutsi RPF of assassinating the president because he resisted signing the Arusha Accord, the Rwandan peace agreement. Although this event triggered the genocide it was far from being a spontaneous popular uprising.  [25]  According to Shelton the 1994 genocide had been carefully planned and coordinated by a small group of government and military officials who used the administrative structure and coercive force of the state to invigorate the genocide and extend it across the country.  [26]  This highlights the fact that the origin of the Rwandan genocide was not merely rooted in ancient hatred but was made possible by contemporary government policies which resurrected and reconstructed old ethnic tensions. In conclusion it is clear that from the arguments set forth, the Rwandan genocide was not merely caused by ancient ethnic hatred but instead was caused by an amalgamation of events and policies. The propaganda used to incite fear was instrumental in creating an environment that turned the Hutu and Tutsi against each other, thus allowing the 1994 Rwanda genocide to take place. Mamdani supports this view and comments that Violence has been motivated by a mutual fear of victimhood.  [27]  The complex combination of imperial ethnic division aggravated by propaganda in the context of a civil war and RPF threat as well as economic pressure all came together to create a society and environment that allowed for and committed genocide. Mills and Brunner explain that there is no such thing as a simple tribal meltdown not anywhere, and that the view that the Rwandan genocide was prompted by ancient ethnic hatred does not explain why it took place when it did.  [28]  Although ethnicity w as an important contributing component of the Rwandan genocide it was not the only definitive factor. It is therefore a limited view to claim that the Rwanda genocide was rooted in ancient ethnic hatred when it is clear that the issues involved were significantly more complicated.

Individualism :: essays research papers fc

Individualism   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many characteristics may create one’s individualism. Personality, appearance, environment, and heredity are the characteristics that make up one’s individuality. One can control the individual he may become with the help of individualism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Personality is a characteristic that plays a major role in one’s individuality. â€Å"One has many parts that make up his personality† (Kramer 27). One may show these parts in different ways. There are a variety of personalities that one can have. If one wants others to see him as fun, he must have a fun and joyful personality. If one has an outgoing personality, one may have many friends and have a very social life. Many times a person can be judged by his personality. One’s personality may vary from day to day. One should always try to express the most unique personality possible.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One’s appearance can clearly define one’s individuality. One’s appearance can be controlled to a certain extent. A person can truly express his individualism through his appearance. The color of one’s hair, skin, and eyes can be changed to one’s liking. The way a person looks can determine many things throughout his life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The environment in which one lives may greatly affect one’s individuality. â€Å"The people and things around one affect how one may feel about oneself† (Kramer 12-13). His environment also affects the way a person behaves. The people and things that are around one could affect how one feels and thinks about oneself. A person’s environment can be controlled. If one is not happy in his environment, he can find a more suitable place to live. In several ways, one’s environment can determine who one will become in the future.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Heredity is a characteristic that helps determine one’s individualism. Heredity controls features like the color of one’s hair, eyes, and skin. The way one is seen as a person could be determined because of one’s heredity. One may not be accepted or he may even be stereotyped by his heredity. Heredity is a characteristic that cannot be changed or altered.

Students and the Civil Rights Movement During the 1960s Essay

The 1960's was a decade of tremendous social and political upheaval. In the United States, many movements occurred by groups of people seeking to make positive changes in society. During this decade, the Civil Rights movement continued to gain momentum. The black community was continually persecuted and discriminated against by prejudice white individuals and figures of authority. Blacks everywhere struggled to end discrimination. They demanded the right to vote, to receive quality education, and to become respected individuals in the community which shunned them. (Sitkoff 35) Students, in particular, played a significant role in the Civil Rights Movement during the 1960's. Many college students were outraged by social injustices and the intolerance shown by their universities. Many individuals participated in boycotts and sit-ins in an attempt to change their community for the better. (Blumberg 18) The young people during the 1960?s greatly influenced the course of the Civil Rights movement by their efforts and actions. Students played a large role in the desegregation of both public grade schools and universities. College students also form ed and took part in new political groups such as the Black Panther Party and Students for a Democratic Society. (Blumberg 73) Because of their heavy political involvement in the Civil Rights Movement, students across the country created a new institution: the political university. (Curry 77) During the 1960?s, many student riots occurred on college campuses. The majority of the rioters were middle class students seeking a voice in the administration of their school. These riots were violent and sometimes fatal. A major issue during the Civil... ...fectiveness. The 1960?s were a time of great disorder among the young people of the America. Students began to stand up for their rights and fight to improve society, even if it meant turning their backs on the government. During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960?s a new pattern was brought forth in many universities. The university was no longer just a community of learners and educators, but is suddenly became a political arena. But many tend to forget that the majority of the nations 6,700,000 college students were studying peacefully and not causing any trouble in the community (Curry 106). During this time, many changes were brought about in society, some being positive and others being negative. Because of their great passion and effort, students may be considered the most influential group of people during this critical period in history.

Mill and Harm Thesis

In this essay I shall argue that John Stuart Mill’s Harm Principle is about justice and truth.   John Stuart Mill’s argues in On Liberty that the use of the harm theory, or harm principle is that a state of government must ensure the quality of liberty just so long as the actions committed in the cause of liberty are not detrimental to the activists.   That is to say that the government may interfere in order to prevent harm.   The following paper will discuss Mill’s harm principle and its application to government in regards to restrictions and controls. Mill argues for the doctrine of liberty.   Mill means to define the role of a person in society and as such the limited amount of coercion consistent in society that should affect that individual, â€Å"No society in which these liberties are not, on the whole, respected, is free, whatever may be its form of government; and none is completely free in which they do exist absolute and unqualified†.   Mill is stating that although these qualities are liberty come at a cost in no society would they be considered free because of the forms of government in which the world adheres. Mill argues that any opinion should be voiced despite its offensive sentiments and unpopularity.   Mill did not right from a perspective in the harm theory to state that speech was not harmful, but despite this subsequent commentary, speech was an ideal freedom.   Mill believed, and stated in the Harm Principle, that the harmfulness of an act is just cause to place social control on that act through legal means.   These means included coercion. Mill advocates a style of liberalism that governs that individuals have basic rights (as is stated in On Liberty) and the apex of these is free speech.   The factors that involve Mill also include a free society in general and specific terms.   Even in this free society there are certain actions that a person in a society may be involved with and then there are counter-actions of the government against those acts.   This is interpreted to mean that such acts were harmful and the government was justifiable in their prevention or retardation of those acts being committed. Such acts by the government or society do not necessary lead to an infringement on that person’s liberty.   There are however points to consider when examining the harms theory; once such interpretation to the theory includes the ubiquitous nature of permissible interference by society or a governing body since any act committed may be a legitimate harmful act upon another person, and thus action in any definition could be interpreted in this sense.   Thus, any action taken by the government with the umbrella statement of harm could be legitimate. Mill however was very stringent on his interpretation of Harm Theory and its application to law.   He did not for one thing want a blanketed reason for any misuse of human liberty; thus, to use the Harm Theory in regards to the prevention of free speech because it can be construed to be harmful is not legitimate according to Mill.   He was not an advocate of preventing expression or opinion.   This is shown in his absolute rejection to consider the efficacy of tolerating any particular inference against that censoring it, â€Å"†¦however positive any one’s persuasion may be, not only of the falsity but of the pernicious consequences-not only of the pernicious consequences, but (to adopt expressions which I altogether condemn) the immorality and impiety of an opinion†.   This is stated in regards to any person or legislation’s opinion that speech could potentially be harmful. Mill helped define in broad termination a tolerant perspective of accepting opinions and/or sentiments, that were made not only in private but also in public places, â€Å"†¦human beings should be free to form opinions, and to express their opinions without reserve†.   Despite this statement Mill had a firm belief in the restrictions of certain acts and believed such free speech was conditional. These exceptions of Mill were specious.   Although Mill’s harm theory does constitute legitimate ground by which to swerve the use of free speech much of On Liberty   deals with the propagating of free speech.   Mill made a distinction between qualified and unqualified liberties.   While Mill guards the use of free speech and free trade it is the former of the two that is unqualified as a liberty.   This is done by stating that free trade is not in accordance to individual rights and liberty but that speech on the other hand is a self-regarding action. This statement of free speech is however debatable.   Free speech may be considered a self-regarding action but in most interpretations of Mill this has been denied.   In this denial can be found the fact that free speech then may very lead to harm.   In this harm, the Harm Theory is cemented as a prevention that the legislating body may act upon.   In the debate of self-regarding Mill states that self-regarding is an action committed in which the outcome has no bearing of positive or negative effects on anyone else. The introduction of harm can be taken to mean either physical harm or otherwise.   In Mill’s introduction of harm the common consensus is that it means the former.   This means that speech must be attributed as becoming harmful or having the potential to become harmful to a larder body.   In the Declaration of Liberty Mill highlights his key points of liberties and the subsequent harm that should be delivered with their abuses, This, then, is the appropriate region of human liberty.   It comprises, first, the inward domain of consciousness; demanding liberty of conscience, in the most comprehensive sense; liberty of thought and feeling; absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects, practical or speculative, scientific, moral, or theological.   The liberty of expressing and publishing opinions may seem to fall under a different principle, since it belongs to that part of the conduct of an individual which concerns other people; but, being almost of as much importance as the liberty of thought itself, and resting in great part on the same reasons, is practically inseparable from it. It is clearly stated in the above excerpt in the phrase â€Å"expressing and publishing opinions†¦concerns other people† it is devised that speech as well as the written word fall under the category of liberty which in turn, because it concerns other people is subject to the jurisdiction of Harm Theory and must be regulated by the government. The cost of the obstruction of free speech is to not have anyone commit a harmful act.   Although the thought of censorship in regards to the Harm Theory are prevalent and extensive in scope it must be realized that opinion even in its most innocent form of private discussion lead eventually to action; and these actions are not consistently without destruction. Through speech a person’s opinions are discovered.   These opinions have a domino effect that is not a contained event but becomes widespread especially in the media centered world.   Opinions of speeches are tools by which a revolution may occur or based upon the wrong assumptions of an event or theory speech and opinions that are accepted by the general public become gateways by which hysteria, chaos and harm do occur.   Thus it is behooving to place mandates on certain speeches to ensure that destruction and harm do not occur. In this essay I have argued that although Mill focuses his attention of liberty in a free society he is also a humanist and the concern over a person’s body is the main principle of his On Liberty essay, â€Å"That principle is, that the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection.   That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others†.   It may thus be construed that Mill advocated the use of minimal censorship if the reason behind the prevention was to retard harm being done to another person or a group of people. There must however, in Mill’s theory exist a legitimate reason behind the censorship in order for drastic prevention to occur.   Although the Harm Theory suggests that   prevention is the key to stopping a destructive act there must also be extant governing rules that would prohibit the extreme exercise of government power that could turn into autocratic power which was not in the context of Mill’s theory.   The Harm Theory is regulated by the potential for harm and thus, free speech or other liberties may be interpreted and prevented by a government in order specifically to avert harm. Work Cited Bilbija, Ksenija et al.   The Art of Truth –Telling about Authoritarian Rule.   University of Wisconsin Press, 2005. David Riesman. The Lonely Crowd. 1950 Dollard John. Frustration and Agression. 1939 Freud, Sigmund. Civlilization and Its Discontents. 1930 Kessler, Sanford.   â€Å"The Review of Politics†.  Notre Dame:  Spring (64:2).   (2002).   207   31. Konrad, Lorenz. On Aggression. 1963 Laing, R. D. The Politics of Experience. 1967 MacDonald, Ross.   Socrates versus Plato.   Aspects of Education.   P9-22.   1996. Mill, John Stuart.   Utilitarianism.Social Benefit. More, Thomas.   Utopia.   Trans.   Robert Adams.   W.W. Norton and Company, 1991. Stanford Encyclopedia.   John Stuart Mill.   Online.   11 March 2008: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mill-moral-political/